DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, INSURANCE, STATISTICS AND HISTORY.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TEXAS.
Jno. E. Hollingsworth, Commissioner. E. T. Dumble, State Geologist.
BULLETIN NO. 1.
ARTESIAN WATER
ON
THE LLANO ESTACADO.
BY
DR. GEORGE G. SHUMARD.
REPORT AND ANALYSES
OF
TEXAS SUMACH (RHUS COPALLINA).
BY
GEORGE H. KALTEYER.
HENRY HUTCHINGS, STATE PRINTER.
1892.
2
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, INSURANCE, STATISTICS, AND HISTORY
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TEXAS
AUSTIN, TEXAS, February 20, 1892. Hon. J. E. Hollingsworth, Commissioner of Insurance, etc., Austin, Texas:
DEAR SIR—I transmit herewith for publication as Bulletin No. 1, two articles which relate to work done previous to the organization of the present Survey.
The first of these, entitled "Artesian Water on the Llano Estacado" was found among the papers of Dr. George G. Shumard which were loaned to the present Survey by his family. I have been unable to find it in print anywhere. Although a very brief statement, it contains facts which are very important in their bearing on the artesian water supply of Western Texas, and it is therefore put into this form in order that it may be available.
The second article, "Report and Analyses of Texas Sumach," by Geo. H. Kalteyer, is the result of work taken up by Mr. Kalteyer at the request of Hon. Jno. W. Glenn, State Geologist in 1874. The value of Texas sumach (and of mesquite also) in tanning was practically tested during the years 1861 to 1866, but this is the earliest experimental work with which I am acquainted which endeavors to show by careful analysis the actual and comparative value of the variety of sumach which occurs here in quantity.
Yours very truly,
E. T. Dumble,
State Geologist.
4
ARTESIAN WATER
ON THE
LLANO ESTACADO.
REPORT OF DR. G. G. SHUMARD TO CAPT. JOHN POPE.
6
ARTESIAN WATER ON THE LLANO ESTACADO.
REPORT OF DR. G. G. SHUMARD TO CAPT. JOHN POPE.
May 1st, 1856.
SIR —In obedience to your instructions of April 22nd, I have care fully reviewed my notes and sections taken between this point and the Guadalupe mountains, and made such additional geological examinations in this vicinity as I deemed necessary in order to determine the practicability of obtaining water by means of artesian wells at or near the point selected for the present experiment, and would respectfully submit the following as the result:
The region known as the Llano Estacado or Staked Plains, upon which the well is located, may be considered, geologically, as forming but a portion of a continuous slope which extends from near the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains east to within a short distance of the western borders of the settlements. This slope is composed of strata belonging principally to the upper portion of the Secondary period and presents generally geological conditions in the highest degree favorable for water by means of artesian wells. What these conditions are it is unnecessary for me at this time to state, inasmuch as the subject has already been fully discussed in your report of 1855. I will merely add that so far as they relate to the subject under consideration, the leading conclusions at which you had then arrived have been fully borne out by my subsequent examinations. But favorable as these general conditions are, there are nevertheless certain local exceptions which, wherever they occur, may greatly influence the success of experiments for water by means of artesian borings, and should on that account, whenever practicable, always be carefully avoided. Among these may be mentioned great local flexures or contortions of the strata and the occurrence of deep valleys of denudation. The former, as they are often accompanied by more or less rupture of the layers, may operate by either diverting or entirely arresting underground currents of water, while the latter, whenever they occur between the point of entrance, or source of supply, and that from which water is attempted to be obtained by artesian borings, must necessarily always tend to render the results of such experiments exceedingly doubtful.
The accompanying sections will show that the results of the present one may not be entirely uninfluenced by one or both of these causes.
Section No. 1 exhibits a deep valley of denudation which extends from near the southern extremity of the Guadalupe mountains east, through the distance of twenty-two miles, to the head of Delaware creek. Not taking into account the underlaying sandstone, portions
8
of which have also suffered largely in the same manner, the thickness of solid strata here removed by denudation cannot fall far short of one thousand feet. How far this valley extends north of the line of survey, I am at present unable to determine, never having had an opportunity of carrying my examinations in that direction, but inasmuch as we have certain evidence that the causes producing it have operated with much greater force south than immediately to the north of that line, it is possible that it may not extend sufficiently far in the latter direction to interfere with the success of the present experiment. But as it may prove to be otherwise, I am of the opinion that the probability of success would have been increased had the well been located ten or fifteen miles further north. As this opinion may be objected to on the ground that the edges of the strata are still exposed at the distance of twenty-two miles from the mountains, and may there serve as sufficient receptacles of atmospheric moisture, I would state that I have no positive evidence that the amount of rainfall is there sufficient to supply water at the distance of forty or fifty miles by means of artesian wells, but even admitting that such should be the case, it is evident that the supply thus obtained would be likely to be far less constant than when procured from the immediate vicinity of the mountains, where all the requisite meteorological conditions are supposed to exist.
Section No. 2 is taken from near the east bank of the Rio Pecos at a point situated about eight miles west of the well. Here we have the strongest evidence of disturbance, the strata being deeply folded, portions of their anticlinal axes denuded, and dipping in different directions at angles varying from forty-five to fifty degrees. These flexures have been traced from near the mouth of Delaware creek to within a short distance of our present camp; how far they extend in the opposite direction I am unable at this time to state, as satisfactory sections have been witnessed only in the immediate vicinity of the river, the geology of the country both to the east and west being obscured by thick deposits of much more recent origin.
Inasmuch as this region of disturbance lays immediately to the west of the well, it may, even should its eastern limits not extend more than a mile or so from the Rio Pecos, tend to interfere with the present experiment, and furnishes an additional argument in favor of the selection of some other locality for testing the practicability of obtaining water by the means proposed on the Llano Estacado.
In conclusion, I would state it as my opinion, that should the present experiment prove successful, the result will be of additional value as tending to show that water may here be procured even under unfavorable circumstances; while on the contrary, should it prove other wise, and a supply fail to be brought to the surface, such failure will be
9
no evidence that water cannot be obtained upon the Llano Estacado by means of artesian wells.
I am, sir, with much respect, your obedient servant,
GEO G. SHUMARD,
Surgeon and Geologist P. R. Survey.
To CAPTAIN JOHN POPE,
Corps Topograpical Engineers,
In charge of Pacific Railway Survey.
10
REPORT AND ANALYSES
OF
TEXAS SUMACH,
(Rhus Copallina)
BY
GEO. H. KALTEYER,
Analytical Chemist, San Antonio, Texas.
REPORT AND ANALYSES OF TEXAS SUMACH.
BY GEO. H. KALTEYER, CHEMIST.
12
SIR—I have the honor to offer the following report and analyses of the sumachs found in the State of Texas, as well as a comparison of such as are found in the other States of the Union and those produced in Europe.
At your request I commenced the analyses of "Texas Sumach," or Rhus Copallina, in the month of July, 1873, with the view of resolving the following doubtful points, viz:
First. What period of the year is most favorable for the collection of the article?
Second. How much of marketable sumach will one hundred pounds of the green article give?
Third. What percentage of tannin is found in the various parts of the plant, such as the leaves and young branches, the stems, the berries, the roots and the bark of the roots?
Fourth. What method should be adopted to prepare the article for market, having special reference to its economy and value?
Fifth. How does the Texas sumach compare with that produced in other places and now found in market — especially in its comparative richness in tannin?
Having clearly defined the points of interest to be ascertained, I propose before touching the subject to be answered to give a brief sketch of the plant, its history and uses.
The sumach is a small tree or shrub of the natural order Anacadiacæe, and is represented by the single genus Rhus, which implies the color of the berries.
The shrub is found in various parts of the United States and in Southern Europe. There are many species of the plant, but I shall confine myself only to those used in commerce.
In Europe we find of the species the Rhus Coriaria and R. Cortinus—these are known in the commercial community as the "Sicilian Sumach;" the R. Myrtefolia is another species growing in the vicinity of Avignon and Montpelier, in France; in Spain as well as Portugal we find the plant again growing, but of an inferior quality; in the United States we find the R. Typhina, or Stag-horn Sumach, the height of which is about twenty feet; then the R. Glabra, or Smooth Sumach, from four to ten feet high, whose leaves spread out; following this we find the R. Pumila, a species chiefly found about the barrens of Georgia and North Carolina, of a dwarfish height, varying from one to seven feet; in Vermont we find the R. Aromatica, which is also dwarfish and
14
of a straggling character, known as the "Fragrant Sumach," and found as well westward as southwestward of that State. In the southern part of Florida we encounter the R. Metopium, which attains a height somewhere about twenty feet; in Alabama we see yet another species, the R. Cotinoides, which, in the opinion of Gray, is the R. Cotinus (an exotic), or the "Venetian Sumach, or Smoke Plant."
Through the kindness and aid of Mr. Ferdinand Lindheimer, a gentle man well versed in botany and thoroughly informed on the subject as it pertains to this State, I have been able to collect that species in which we are most interested, viz: the Rhus Copallina or "Dwarf Sumach;" this latter name was obtained for it in the Northern States, where it is found of a diminutive size; here in Texas we find it reaching the height of sixteen feet,with branches and petioles, pubescent leaflets nine-twenty one, oval, lanceolate or oblong, acute or acuminate, shining above, pubescent beneath, unequal at the base, petiole winged, panicles terminal, thyrsoid, sessile, sometimes leafy, drupes red, hairy (vide Gray and Torrey Flora North America).
Another species, the R. Trilobata, is found growing on the edge of thickets or in rocky districts.
Mr. Lindheimer has discovered in this State two other species, which he has named as the R. Virens and R. Mycrophilla, the first of these the Comanche Indians use as tobacco which they smoke, the other, a very high shrub and of very rare occurrence.
Thus it will be seen that this State produces also its varieties of the species, the most abundant, however, being the R. Copallina.
The uses to which this article is applied are in tanning and dyeing. The leaves (previously dried and ground) are used to tan fine Moroccos, and other light leathers, such as the skins of sheep, goats, etc., and the coloring matter produced also by a decoction of the leaves, is used in dyeing cotton, etc. These dyes are thus formed: the fabric having been immersed in the mordant (which is a solution used to fasten the color) of sulphate of zinc, yields (after it passes through the decoction of the sumach leaves) a brownish yellow color; a mordant of tin renders the fabric yellow; with acetate of iron (weak or strong) a gray or black. The bark of the R. Glabra or Smooth Sumach is used as a mordant for red colors.
TEXAS SUMACHS.
Commercially, those sumachs have the greatest value which are most abundantly supplied with tannin, hence to determine its qualities in this respect, I have carefully collected our species, the R. Copallina, bi-monthly, and ascertained the amount of tannin contained in the different parts, as well as the loss by drying, as seen in Tables Nos. 1 and 2.
The sumach was collected at a point, fifteen miles northwest of this city, on the Helotes creek, and was always gathered at the same place.
15
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I have also taken occasion to observe what influence rain and moisture had upon the chemical constituents of the plant; for that purpose I obtained the following table from "Dr. Peterson, Meteorological Observer," of this city, showing the days of rain and frost during the period of growth, which proves that the vegetation of this year was thrown back one month, and as a consequence, had the season not been unpropitious, we should have been able to collect it one month earlier.
16
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Having given the history and uses of the subject of this report, I propose, by aid of the tables above, to exhibit a tangible answer to the five propositions contained in the beginning of this report.
By an observation of Table No. 1, it will be seen that the weight of the leaves increased until the appearance of the berries, and on being dried and ground the largest percentage was obtained in the latter part of the month of August; therefore the proper period for collection is from the time of flowering, say in June, until the berries commence to appear in August. The latter part of the first month should be the favorable season to commence, and end in the latter part of August. The flowers may be gathered with the leaves.
The same table shows that one hundred pounds of green shrub produced 34.37 per cent of dried leaves fit for commerce; hence three tons of the green substance will produce one ton of commercial sumach.
The third proposition is answered by Table No. 1, and it will there be seen that the proportion of tannin contained in the various parts of the plant increases in the ratio to the sum of its weight, and vice versa, so that by the proper gathering season, we have twenty-two and seventy-six hundredths per cent of the desideratum (tannin). By refer ence to the table it will also be seen, that the most valuable part of the plant is its leaves, the rest being comparatively useless. By reference to Table No. 3, it will be seen that the heavy rains which fell in September and October had a tendency to increase the amount of tannin in the last collection, made November 1; hence the proof, that a rainy season is beneficial to the production of tannin. The same holds good for its production in August, as by reference to the same table it will be observed that there was a heavy rainfall in the months of May and June, and consequently an increase of tannin.
I propose to prepare the article for market by first cutting the youngest branches (latest growth) including flowers, permitting them to lie on
17
the ground for one or two hours, and then removing them to the place of drying, which process should be conducted by the aid of heat moderately applied until dry, (the heat not to exceed 80 degrees C. or 176 degrees Fahrenheit.) I prefer this process (kiln drying) to the others in use as having given the good results now offered in this report. In Sicily the leaves are thinly strewn on a meadow, and there dried in the sun; but great care must be taken to keep them out of dew and rain, as moisture aids fermentation and consequently destruction of tannin. In Virginia drying is employed by means of the shade. Having dried the leaves by one or the other of these processes, they should be well threshed, and all the detached leaves with their flowers and small stems, should be gathered and carried to the mill, where, after being ground, they should be sifted and packed in bags forty by sixty inches. (Fifteen bags to the long ton of twenty-two hundred and forty pounds, the article always being sold by that weight.)
I propose that the mill to be used should be such as may be found engraved in the Agricultural Report of the year 1869 of the United States Commissioner of Agriculture, and which can be found on page 232. The mill consists of a heavy solid circular bed of wood, marked "A" in engraving, fifteen feet in diameter, with a depression around the edge, "B," a few inches deep and a foot wide, for the reception of the ground sumach from the bed, and two chasers or rollers, "C C," weighing about two thousand five hundred pounds each, five or six feet in diameter, and provided with teeth of iron, or preferably of wood, thickly inserted. If the axle of a cart were set upon a pivot in its center, the wheels of the cart would describe a compound revolution similar to that of the chasers of a sumach mill. Most mills have to be stopped to allow the unloading of the bed, but a process exhibited in the engraving has been patented by Mr. Chase, of Alexandria, Virginia, which obviates this delay. The apparatus consists of an angular arm, "D," attached to a scraper, "E E," and worked by a lever, "F," which passes through the hollow shaft, "G," and extends to the room above, where it terminates in a handle, as seen in the section at the top of the engraving. The scrapers carry the ground sumach to the opening, "H," whence it is carried by an elevator to the sieves, such as is common in flour mills, and the grinding is done by the application of the upright shaft, "G," between the chasers, which moves them.
The price of such a mill as described in the Agricultural Report is about three thousand dollars. But a mill on the same plan can be constructed by almost any mechanic for a less sum—that is to say, it will answer the same purpose, without being so elaborately factored. In Europe the mode of grinding is by stones on a smooth stone bed.
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CONSUMPTION OF SUMACH.
It will not be out of place to give here a sketch of the quantity of the sumach consumed in the United States in one year, the quantity imported, as well as that produced by home manufacture, taking also into consideration the relative value of all now found in market. Prior to offering this information I would place before you the comparative classification of the various sumachs, showing the relative percentage of tannin in that produced by the different nations.
 |
From a mature consideration of this very important table we see that the richest sumach in tannin is that produced by Virginia, which, according to the analysis of Professor Huson, gives thirty per cent. Next on the list is the Sicilian, or that most sought for by tanners and dyers. This contains, according to the investigation of the same chemist, twenty-three and sixty-five hundredths per cent. Third in the scale is that of Texas, which, according to a very careful and minute analysis by myself, yields twenty-two and seventy-six hundredths per cent; and I am of the opinion that even this percentage can be materially increased, for, by a minute comparison of three analyses of the Virginian of the year 1869, I find it gives but twenty and seventy-six hundredths percent, while the mean of a like number of analyses performed by myself, of the Texas sumach, gave twenty-one and ninety-four hundredths per cent.
In 1869 we find the consumption of sumach aggregated over ten thousand tons, five thousand of which was produced in the United States, and it is fair to suppose that in the four years since that report was made the consumption has increased from one-half to two-thirds that quantity. The imports in six years, from 1864 to 1869, of sumach to
19
the United States, was not less than twenty-four thousand two hundred and forty tons, worth at least one million seven hundred and eighty-four thousand and eighty-four dollars. The relative values of sumach as found in our market are as follows:
Imported sumach at New York, December 20, 1873 ..... $70 to $135 per ton.
American sumach at New York, December 20, 1873 ..... $80 to $90 per ton.
Thus it will be seen that the imported article is superior to that produced by the home factors. Now the question arises, in what consists this great difference? The solution is thus explained, that the imported has hitherto given a result which the home production was incapable of, viz: that of tanning leathers white; but even that objection now no longer exists, since a firm in the District of Columbia has been enabled to perform with home sumachs even that chemical change; therefore, we must hope to obtain for the home product as favorable a price as is obtained for European.
CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, I would add that I am convinced that much might be done at home with our native product, and a new enterprise opened up to the welfare of our State in this wise: Hundreds of thousands of goat, sheep and deer skins pass through our State in transitu for New York and other cities, there to be tanned, dressed and returned to our merchants as Morocco and light leathers. In these cities the skins are tanned with sumach costing at times one hundred and thirty-five dollars per ton, which sumach is no better, no richer, nor any more capable of producing a well tanned skin than the sumach produced by the State which exports these millions of skins; and even then should our own people neglect to take advantage of the immense fields of fortune open to them to establish sumach mills and factories as well as tanneries, there is yet open to us the English market from whence we learn "that the very worst tests of the American are superior to the best of Sicilian," and in that market we can find ready sale for all that we can produce and ship at one hundred dollars per ton.
Respectfully,
GEO. H. KALTEYER,
Analytical Chemist.
TO THE HON. J. W. GLENN,
State Geologist of State of Texas.